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Python Language Notes

1. Lexical Analysis
Keywords

 name      ::=  lc_letter (lc_letter | "_")*
 lc_letter ::=  "a"..."z"
  

2. Operators and Builtin Functions
1. All Types

type(obj) --> type object

isinstance(obj, typ) --> bool

repr(obj) #evaluatable representation

str(obj)  #printable representation

is, is not # are two objects the same

• All Numeric Types
• abs(-1) # 1
• chr(65) #'A'
• ord('A')#65
• complex(1) #(1+0j)
• divmod(25,7) #(3,4)
• pow(2,8) #256
• round(2.75,1) #2.8, rounds up
3. Objects

int, float, bool, dict, set, tuple, str, bytes
 None

functions without return, return None
4. Classification
• Primative, Numeric, Sequence, Container: Can contain other types, Collection
• Common use cases
• Dictionaries for lookups
• Tuples for data that is invariant at runtime
• Lists for dynamic runtime data
5. Primative Types
• bool -> True, False
• bool(float("NaN")) --> True
• bool(0.0) --> False
• bool(0) --> False
• bool([]) --> False
• int
• 2**31 - 1
• binary: 0b10 , bin(20) #'0b10100'
• octal: 0o77 , oct(20) #'0o24"
• hex: 0xFF , hex(20) #'0x14'
• int(3.5); int("3.5"); int("1111", 1) --> 15
• abs(-1)
• 1//3 #0, integer division
• float
• 1.41
• 3e-5
• float(3), float("3.14")
• float("nan"), float("inf"), float("-inf")
• : {round(1.234, 2)
6. Complex

 complex(2,3) #(2+3j)
 

7. Sequence (Builtin Functions)
len(obj)
• character (char): ord(char) --> int
• strings
In contrast to many other programming languages, there is no separate character type distinct from the string type.

help(str)

>>> m = """This is
... a multiline
... string"""
'This isna multilinenstring'
print(m)

str(666)

"Vi er så glad for å høre og lære om Python!" # 'Vi er så glad for å høre og lære om Python!'


"Vi er su00e5 glad for u00e5 hxf8re og lu00e6re om Python!" ' #Vi er så glad for å høre og lære om Python!'

Similarly, you can use the x escape sequence followed by a 2-character hexadecimal string to include one-byte Unicode code points in a string literal:

'\xe5'
'å' 

You can even use an escaped octal string using a single backlash followed by three digits in the range zero to seven, although we confess we’ve never seen this used in practice, except inadvertently as a bug:

'\345' 'å'

some common methods and patterns

str.title(), str.upper(), str.lower, str.lstrip(), .rstrip, .strip
var = 'in'
print(f"I am {var} trouble!")

f is short for format
• raw strings r'this is t raw'
• implicit concatantion "hello" "world"
• bytes b'this is a byte string'
an immutable sequence of bytes

b'this is a byte string'.split()
[b'this', b'is', b'a', b'byte', b'string']

"Vi er så glad for ".encode('utf-8')

b'Vi er sa\xcc\x8a glad for '.decode('utf-8')

• bytearray
• tuple

 (1,2)
 (False, 1, 'c')
 (2,) + (9,) => (2,9)

• Lists

[1,2,3]
[True, False, '7']

append(x), count(x), extend(L), index(x), insert(x), insert(i,x), pop(x), remove(x), reverse(), sort()

alist = [0, 1, 2, 3]
del alist[2]  #[0, 1, 3]

copy a list by generating a new list using slice operations

mylist[:]

• Sorting Lists

sorted() #generate a copy
sort
sorted(x, reverse=True)
reverse()

• Numerical Lists
use range() to generate a series of numberss.

list(range(5))
list(range(5,11))

nums = []
for exp in range(5):
    nums.append(2**exp)

• List Comprehensions
A compact way of defining lists

[2**exp for exp in range(5)]
 

[i**3 for i in range(10) if True]

f = open("test.txt", 'r')
data = [line.strip for line in f]
f.close()
# now process data

• Generator Expressions
use like list comprensions except use parenthesis instead

f = open("test.txt", 'r')
data = (line.strip for line in f)
#now process data before closing the file!
f.close()

• dictionary
{key:value} check whether a key is available 'key' in dict

states = {
	'ca': 'California',
	'il': 'Illinois',
	'fl': 'florida',
	}
states['ca']
states.get('xx', 'default value') # equivalant to: states['xx'] if 'xx' in states else 'default value'
states.setdefault('xx', 'default value') #in not there set and return the key.
states['ny'] = 'New York'
del states['il']
states.values() #dict_values([...]), <class 'dict_values'>
states.items()
states.keys()

has_key(), keys(), values(), dict.items(), clear(), copy(), update(x), get(x,[y])

key should be unique
• Set
{1,2,3} each element is unique

s = set()
s.add(1)
s.add('foo')
t = set()
s | t #union of t & s

Set Comprehensions are similar to list comps. just use curly brackets.

odd = {i for i in range(10) if i % 2}

• Frozenset
• Complex
8. Modules and Packages
• Modules
A module is a python file.

import module
import module as mod
from module import specific_function
  

• Packages
lets say you have a package called maps for map functionality. The folders structure may look like:

maps/
 __init__.py
 cities.py
 navigation.py
 gpsdata.py

__init__.py can be empty but is required. One imports it simply by:

import maps 

you can use a function inside navigation, for example, turn_right() like:

maps.navigation.turn_right() 

9. Standard Library / Types
• math

import math
math.sqrt(16)
PI = math.pi
math.sin(PI)
math.log(1000, 10)
  

• Fraction
• Decimal
• Date
• Array
• range

range(5)

10. Converstion Functions
• int, float, bool, str, tuple, list, dict, set
• chr(int) --> char
11. Operators
Numeric + 1 * ** / // % Bitwise ~ >> << & ^ | Comparison1 < > <= >= <> != == Boolean and, or, not

Sequence

  <string | list> + <string | list>
  'five' + 'four'
  <int> * <string | list>
  <obj> in <seq>

• Function application
function(args...)
• Indexing
seq[index | range]
• Lookup (dictionaries)
d[key]


12. Expressions

 Operator Precedence
| no. | operators  | description          |
|   1 | f(...)     | function application |
|   2 | o[l]       | index lookups        |
|   3 | o.f(...)   | method call          |
|   4 | **         | exponentiation       |
|   5 | -N         | sign change          |
|   6 | *,/,//,%   | numeric              |
|   7 | +,-        | numeric              |
|   8 | <, <=, ... | comparisons          |
|   9 | in, not in | membership           |
|  10 | not o      | logical              |
|  11 | and 0      | logical              |
|  12 | or         | logical              |

13. Rules for Well-formedness
• R1

 Every Value is well formed

• R2 (E)

 if E is well formed then (E) is well formed

• R3 <uop> E

 <uop> is a unary operation
 if E, then <uop> E is well formed

• R4 E1 <bop> E2

 <bop> is a binary operation
 if E1, E2, then E1 <bop> E2

• R5 E1[E2]

 if E1, E2, the E1[E2]

• R6 F(A, ...)

 if F is a function with A, A1, A2, ... expressions
 then F(), F(A), F(A, A1), F(A, A1, A2), ...

• R7 if O.f(E)

 if O, f, E, E1, ...
 then O.f(), O.f(E), O.f(E, E1), ...

14. Printing

 print("hello", 'how')
 print("hello", end='')

 from pprint import *
 pprint(expressions)

15. Functions
A function is a named block of code. Lambda's produce anonymous functions.
• lambda

 lambda x: x

• def

def f(x,y):
  return x + y

def h():
  "hello"
  #This function returns None

h() #None

• keyword

def f(x=0, y=0):
  print("x = ", x, "y = ", y)
  return (x, y)

f(x=1, 2)
f()
f(1)

• Destructuring with Tuples
Used for passing any number of positional arguments.

def ff(*a):
  print("first = ", a[0], "Second = ", a[1])
  return (len(a), a)

• Destructuring with Dictionaries

def fff(**a):
  print(a["first"])
  return a

• destructuring with both

def g(*a,**b):
  return (a,b)

16. Methods

 x+1

 [is actually]

 x.__add__(1)

Similarly we have the following:
• Magic Methods

__add__(self, y)        # x + y
__sub__(self, y)        # x - y
__mul__(self, y)        # x * y
__mod__(self, y)        # x % y
__neg__(self)           # -x
__eq__(self, y)         # x == y
__ge__(self, y)         # x >= y
__gt__(self, y)         # x >  y
__lt__(self, y)         # x <  y
__le__(self, y)         # x <= y
__ne__(self, y)         # x != y
__contains__(self,y)    # y in x
__getitem__(self, y)    # x[y]
__setitem__(self, i, y) # x[i] = y
__hash__(self)          # hash(x)
__int__(self)           # int(x)
__iter__(self)          # for y in x
__len__(self)           # len(x)
__repr__(self)          # repr(x)
__str__(self)           # str(x)

17. Some Builtins

 abs, min, max
 type
 len
 dir
gives internal dictionary of names

18. Testing

 Doctests
 test_sqrt.py

"""
>>> sqrt(4)
2.0
>>> sqrt(2)
1.4142135623730951
>>> sqrt(-1)
0+1j
"""

from sqrt import *

if __name__ == "__main__":
    import doctest
    doctest.testmod()

 sqrt.py

def sqrt(x):
  x**0.5

19. Conditionals

if  expr:
  expr
elif expr:
  expr
else:
  True

while x:
  expr
    break;

break - takes you out of the loop permanently. continues - takes you to the beginning of the loop again.
20. Sequence Operations
• Slicing
start at first index, stop at item before last index

'0123456789'[1:5]
[0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9][1:5]
  

optional 3rd index gives step value. sequence[i;j;k]

s = "Python"
s[::-1] #'nohtyP'
s[::2] #'Pto'

• Strings
• split

'this.is.a.string'.split('.')
''.split(':')
  

• for loops
learn.txt

cities = ["London", "New York", "Paris", "Oslo", "Helsinki"]

for city in cities:
  print(city)

colors = {'crimson': 0xdc143c, 'coral': 0xff7f50, 'teal': 0x008080}
for color in colors:
  print(color, colors[color])

from urllib.request import urlopen

def get_words():
    with urlopen('http://thevikidtruth.com/5000/!download?-A1624') as story:
        story_words = []
        for line in story:
            line_words = line.decode('utf-8').split()
            for word in line_words:
                story_words.append(word)
    for word in story_words:
        print(word)

if __name__ == '__main__':
    get_words()
  




21. Classes
• Creating Classes
A class organises data and actions into one object. You can create instances of the class. An attribute is a variable associated with a class. A method is a function in the class.

class Microphone():
  """ A Documentation String """
  def __init__(self, type, volume=50):  #init method is
    self.type = type                    #called automatically
    self.volume = volume                #self=current instance
  def record(self, input):
    """blah blah"""
    print(f"using {self.type} on {input}.")

create an instance and use:

mic1 = Microphone('laffler')
mic1.record(5)

• Inheritance

class Condenser(Microphone):
  """documentation"""
  def __init__(self, type, volume=30):
    super().__init__(type, volume)
    self.power = True
  def record(self, input):
    if self.power == True:
      super().record(input)
      print(" And I have power")
    else:
      print("Please put on Power.")

use it:

mic2 = Condenser('heavy')
mic2.record(4)
mic2.power

22. User Input

    name = input("what is your name? ")
    

http://thevikidtruth.com/wiki/?python

31mar23

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